Is Purine and Pyrimidine Function? DNA and RNA are essential components of living cells, and each consists of a nitrogenous base known as "purines" and "pyrimidine." The tongue is also an important component of cellular energy stores shortly, and without them, many cellular processes can not be achieved.
Features purine
Class of molecules known as purines are all derivatives of purine heterocyclic compounds, which actually never found in nature. Guanine, which is shown in the figure, is a purine molecule modified by amino groups and the ketone oxygen. Purine standards used by high-energy bonds and synthesis of DNA / RNA are guanine and adenine.
Guanine </ b>
Features Pyrimidines
Pirimidins is a molecule that is a derivative of pyrimidine. Such as purine, pyrimidine heterocyclic molecule that is not found in nature. Cytosine, which is shown in the figure, similar to guanine in that it is a pyrimidine modified with amino groups and the ketone oxygen.
Cytosine </ b>
Purine and Pyrimidine function
There are two main cellular functions of purine and pyrimidine for. First, the purines adenine and guanine and the pyrimidine cytosine, thymine and uracil are all used for the production of DNA and RNA. It is synthesized nitrogenous bases associated with phosphorylated ribose sugar residues, and the nucleoside monophosphate is incorporated into the growing strand of new DNA or RNA during replication or transcription. The second function is a pyrimidine and purine short-term energy storage. The most common form of energy in all cells is adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. The release of the third phosphate to produce adenosine diphosphate, or ADP, a reaction that is highly profitable and can drive the reaction requires energy input. Guanine triphosphate and guanine diphosphate used by certain enzymes and receptors as on / off, while cytosine triphosphate and uridine triphosphate are both used in the production of biomolecules.
Difference Between Purines & Pyrimidines
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, and ribonucleic acid or RNA, which is found in the cells of all living things on Earth. DNA and RNA are made of sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base molecule. There were five of nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil. They are classified as purine or pyrimidine, based on their chemical structure.
Purines </ b>
There are two purines: adenine and guanine. They differ from pyrimidine in the sense that they consist of two "rings" carbon-nitrogen chemicals, while pyrimidine ring only has one. As such, they are larger and heavier than the pyrimidine. Adenine and guanine are found in both DNA and RNA.
Pyrimidine </ b>
There are three pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine and uracil. Pyrimidine ring is made of only one carbon-nitrogen, making them smaller than purines. Cytosine is found in DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is found only in DNA and uracil is found only in RNA.
Base pair
Pyrimidine and purine base-pair to create the structure of the DNA double strand. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. When RNA molecules bond to the DNA strand, DNA adenine pairs with uracil in RNA.
Gen </ b>
Each of the three basic string, called a triplet codon, code for amino acids, which means that the enzyme "reads" codon and make the parts of the protein based on the individual code. Codons in turn organized into genes, which make up a DNA strand. DNA strands are coiled into a chromosome, which is housed in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Differences phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes and lymphocytes are both derived from the bone marrow and white blood cells and makes the body's natural immune system, but phagocytes including a larger group than the lymphocyte cell types. Phagocytic cells including granulocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, while the population is composed of B-lymphocyte cells, T-cells and natural killer cells. All can interact with an infection caused by bacteria, fungi or viruses. This defense of the immune system also reacts in the presence of cancerous growth.
Differences phagocytes and lymphocytes
Monocytes are white blood cells that mature into phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes generally defend the body by hunting, attacking and consuming attacker cells. When a threat occurs, the phagocytes to arrive at the site, encapsulates the attacker and consume antigen or cell. Phagocytes continue this process until they die. Pus produced by infection typically contain a large number of dead phagocytes.
Neutrophils are the type of granular lymphocytes phagocytosis. Under the microscope, neutrophils seem to have small spots or granules that contain enzymes that are released as a signal to other immune cells, and arrive in large numbers. They also contain multi-lobular nuclei. It often appears first phagocytes at the site of infection.
Macrophages respond to the threat of slower, bigger, and longer. In addition to having the ability to consume the invaders, these cells can then carry the remains of a threat to the lymphocytes, which perform various tasks. Macrophages also can remind the immune system problem. Dendritic cells have phagocytic properties but most remained in certain areas of the body, resembling the guard.
Once mature in the bone marrow, lymphocytes normally circulate in organs and vascular structures of the lymph system. Spleen, thymus, tonsils and harbored these cells. Lymph vessels do as well.
B-lymphocyte cell types that have the ability to consume the threat of an attacker. Agranular cells normally bind antigens in the key and lock type formation.They also has the ability to remember specific antigens.
T-cells, or T helper cells, is another type of lymphocyte. After leaving the bone marrow, these cells generally migrate to the thymus. CD8 + T-cell cytotoxic properties. When viruses attack, they generally invade cells, hiding from the immune response and deceptive become reproductive cells using viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Host cell responds to this attack by showing proteins on their surface, which attracts CD8 + cells. CD8 + cells and then destroys the host cell and its contents before replication occurs.
CD4 + cell types other than T-cells. After consuming the attacker cells, the lymphocytes present antigens to other immune cells. These cells release chemicals summon help, which surrounds the CD4 + cells, leading to symptoms often associated with infection. CD4 + T-cells also perform antibody-mediated responses. After the B-cells emit chemical signals to the T cell response, these cells bind antigen, allowing B-cells to produce antibody-secreting clones.
Natural killer cells are a variation of the lymphocytes. When it occurs in infected cells, killer cells by host inject toxic enzymes. They also signal the need for an increased production of B cells and T cells
Cell and Tissue Differentiation
By: Sridianti On March 24, 2014 0 Comment
In multicellular organisms, cell networks with community work together to carry out particular functions are organized. The exact role of the network in an organism depends on what type of cells it contains. For example, endothelial tissue lining the human gastrointestinal tract is composed of several types of cells. Some cells absorb nutrients from the digestive contents, while others (called goblet cells) secrete lubricating mucus that helps the content to run smoothly.
However, some types of cells in the tissue that not only have different functions. They also have a distinct transcription program and may divide at different rates. Appropriate regulation of this figure is very important for the maintenance and repair of tissues. Spatial organization of the cells that make up the network are also central network function and survival. Organization is largely dependent on the polarity, or the orientation of certain cells in their place. Of course, external signals from neighboring cells or from the extracellular matrix is also an important influence on the composition of cells in the tissue.
Is New Source of Cells for Network?
Without cell division, a network of long-term survival is not possible. Within each tissue, the cells continued to fill itself through the division process, although the turnover rate can vary between different cell types within the same network. For example, in the adult mammalian brain, neurons rarely divide. However, glial cells in the brain continue to divide throughout the life of adult mammals. Mammalian epithelial cells also do perhantian regular basis, usually every few days.
Neurons not only the cells lose their ability to divide when they are adults. In fact, many of the differentiated cells lose this ability. To help cope with this loss, the network maintains stem cells serve as a reservoir for undifferentiated cells. Stem cells usually have the capacity to grow into many different cell types. Transcription factor - a protein that regulates genes that are transcribed in the cell - it seems important to determine the specific stem cells take the lane when they differentiate. For example, both the intestinal absorptive cells and goblet cells arise from the same stem cell population, but the transcriptional programs that cause them to mature into different cells differ dramatically (Figure 1).
transcriptional regulators may act at different stages and in different combinations, by way of cell development and differentiation.
Transcription factors can be activated at different times during cell differentiation. When the mature cells and through different stages (arrows), transcription factors (colored balls) can act on gene expression and cell change in different ways. These changes affect the next generation of cells derived from the cell. In the next generation, it is a combination of transcription factors that is different that could ultimately determine the type of cell.
How Networks Non-grown Keeping Themselves?
Although most tissues in adult organisms maintain a constant size, the cells that make up these networks continues to turn. Therefore, in order for a particular network to remain the same size, the speed of cell death and cell division it must be kept in balance.
Every time stem cells are encouraged to produce certain types of cells, they undergo asymmetric cell division. With asymmetric division, each of the two daughter cells produced has a unique life journey. In this case, one of the daughter cells have a limited capacity for cell division and begin to differentiate, whereas the other daughter cell remains a stem cell with unlimited proliferative ability.
A variety of factors can trigger cell death in the tissues. For example, the process of apoptosis, or programmed cell death, selectively eliminating damaged cells - including those with mitochondrial DNA damage or damaged. During apoptosis, cellular protease and nuclease is activated, and the cell self-destruct. Also monitor cell survival factor and negative signals that they receive from other cells before initiating programmed cell death. Once apoptosis starts, fast results, leaving a small fragment with recognizable pieces of the core material. Specialized cells then rapidly digest and degrade these fragments, making it difficult to detect evidence of apoptosis.
What Component Support Structures Mobile Network?
Network function depends on more than the type of cell and the appropriate level of death and division: This is also a function of cellular regulation. Both cell junctions and the cytoskeletal network helps stabilize the network architecture. For example, the cells that make up the human epithelial tissue attached to each other through some type of adhesive connections. Transmembrane protein characteristics provide the basis for each type of connection. In this connection, a transmembrane protein on the cell interacts with the transmembrane protein similar to the adjacent cells. Specific adapter proteins then connecting the resulting assembly into the cytoskeleton of each cell. It's a lot of connections formed between the junction and cytoskeletal proteins effectively generating network stretching over many cells, providing mechanical strength to the epithelium.
Intestinal endothelium - is actually a surface epithelium lining the digestive tract - is an excellent example of this structure works. Here, the tight junctions between the cells form a seal that prevents even small molecules and ions move across the endothelium. As a result, the endothelial cells themselves are responsible for determining the molecule passes from the intestinal lumen into the surrounding tissue. Meanwhile, based adherens junction protein cadherin transmembrane provide mechanical support to the endothelium. This junction is reinforced by the attachment of a wide array of actin filaments underlying apical - or lumen-facing membrane.
This is an organized collection of actin filaments also extends into the microvilli, which is a small finger-like projections that protrude from the apical membrane into the lumen of the intestine and increase the surface area available for absorption of nutrients. Additional mechanical support comes from desmosomes, which appears as a plaque-like structures beneath the cell membrane, attached to intermediate filaments. In fact, desmosomes-intermediate filament network extending in some cells, such as endothelium-giving properties sheet. In addition, the intestine contained stem cells that guarantee the supply of new cells that contribute to multiple cell types needed for this complex structure works fine.
How Extracellular Matrix Supports Network Structure?
This extracellular matrix (ECM) is also important for the structure of the network, because it gives attachment to the cell site and send information about the spatial position of the cell. ECM consists of a mixture of proteins and polysaccharides produced by the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticula of nearby cells. Once synthesized, these molecules move into the right side of the cell - such as basal or apical face - in which they are incurred. Final organization ECM then occur outside the cell.
To understand how the ECM works, consider two very different sides of the gut endothelium. The network side is facing the lumen, where it comes in contact with the digested food. The other side attaches to specific ECM support structure called the basal lamina. Consists of a basal lamina proteins collagen and laminin, as well as a variety of other macromolecules. On the side of the endothelium, the cells attach adhesive connection to the ECM. transmembrane protein integrin binding ECM components in the intersection and recruit signaling proteins to their cytoplasmic side. From there, the signal goes to the core of each cell.
Conclusion
Network is a community of cells that have a function beyond what a single cell type can be achieved. Healthy tissue requires the right mix of cells, and the cells in it must be oriented correctly and dividing at the right level. In order to coordinate their function, organization, and the rate of death and division, the cells in the tissues continue to process and respond to signals from one another and from the ECM surrounding them.
Features Pyrimidines
Pirimidins is a molecule that is a derivative of pyrimidine. Such as purine, pyrimidine heterocyclic molecule that is not found in nature. Cytosine, which is shown in the figure, similar to guanine in that it is a pyrimidine modified with amino groups and the ketone oxygen.
Cytosine </ b>
Purine and Pyrimidine function
There are two main cellular functions of purine and pyrimidine for. First, the purines adenine and guanine and the pyrimidine cytosine, thymine and uracil are all used for the production of DNA and RNA. It is synthesized nitrogenous bases associated with phosphorylated ribose sugar residues, and the nucleoside monophosphate is incorporated into the growing strand of new DNA or RNA during replication or transcription. The second function is a pyrimidine and purine short-term energy storage. The most common form of energy in all cells is adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. The release of the third phosphate to produce adenosine diphosphate, or ADP, a reaction that is highly profitable and can drive the reaction requires energy input. Guanine triphosphate and guanine diphosphate used by certain enzymes and receptors as on / off, while cytosine triphosphate and uridine triphosphate are both used in the production of biomolecules.
Difference Between Purines & Pyrimidines
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, and ribonucleic acid or RNA, which is found in the cells of all living things on Earth. DNA and RNA are made of sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base molecule. There were five of nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil. They are classified as purine or pyrimidine, based on their chemical structure.
Purines </ b>
There are two purines: adenine and guanine. They differ from pyrimidine in the sense that they consist of two "rings" carbon-nitrogen chemicals, while pyrimidine ring only has one. As such, they are larger and heavier than the pyrimidine. Adenine and guanine are found in both DNA and RNA.
Pyrimidine </ b>
There are three pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine and uracil. Pyrimidine ring is made of only one carbon-nitrogen, making them smaller than purines. Cytosine is found in DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is found only in DNA and uracil is found only in RNA.
Base pair
Pyrimidine and purine base-pair to create the structure of the DNA double strand. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. When RNA molecules bond to the DNA strand, DNA adenine pairs with uracil in RNA.
Gen </ b>
Each of the three basic string, called a triplet codon, code for amino acids, which means that the enzyme "reads" codon and make the parts of the protein based on the individual code. Codons in turn organized into genes, which make up a DNA strand. DNA strands are coiled into a chromosome, which is housed in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Differences phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes and lymphocytes are both derived from the bone marrow and white blood cells and makes the body's natural immune system, but phagocytes including a larger group than the lymphocyte cell types. Phagocytic cells including granulocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, while the population is composed of B-lymphocyte cells, T-cells and natural killer cells. All can interact with an infection caused by bacteria, fungi or viruses. This defense of the immune system also reacts in the presence of cancerous growth.
Differences phagocytes and lymphocytes
Monocytes are white blood cells that mature into phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes generally defend the body by hunting, attacking and consuming attacker cells. When a threat occurs, the phagocytes to arrive at the site, encapsulates the attacker and consume antigen or cell. Phagocytes continue this process until they die. Pus produced by infection typically contain a large number of dead phagocytes.
Neutrophils are the type of granular lymphocytes phagocytosis. Under the microscope, neutrophils seem to have small spots or granules that contain enzymes that are released as a signal to other immune cells, and arrive in large numbers. They also contain multi-lobular nuclei. It often appears first phagocytes at the site of infection.
Macrophages respond to the threat of slower, bigger, and longer. In addition to having the ability to consume the invaders, these cells can then carry the remains of a threat to the lymphocytes, which perform various tasks. Macrophages also can remind the immune system problem. Dendritic cells have phagocytic properties but most remained in certain areas of the body, resembling the guard.
Once mature in the bone marrow, lymphocytes normally circulate in organs and vascular structures of the lymph system. Spleen, thymus, tonsils and harbored these cells. Lymph vessels do as well.
B-lymphocyte cell types that have the ability to consume the threat of an attacker. Agranular cells normally bind antigens in the key and lock type formation.They also has the ability to remember specific antigens.
T-cells, or T helper cells, is another type of lymphocyte. After leaving the bone marrow, these cells generally migrate to the thymus. CD8 + T-cell cytotoxic properties. When viruses attack, they generally invade cells, hiding from the immune response and deceptive become reproductive cells using viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Host cell responds to this attack by showing proteins on their surface, which attracts CD8 + cells. CD8 + cells and then destroys the host cell and its contents before replication occurs.
CD4 + cell types other than T-cells. After consuming the attacker cells, the lymphocytes present antigens to other immune cells. These cells release chemicals summon help, which surrounds the CD4 + cells, leading to symptoms often associated with infection. CD4 + T-cells also perform antibody-mediated responses. After the B-cells emit chemical signals to the T cell response, these cells bind antigen, allowing B-cells to produce antibody-secreting clones.
Natural killer cells are a variation of the lymphocytes. When it occurs in infected cells, killer cells by host inject toxic enzymes. They also signal the need for an increased production of B cells and T cells
Cell and Tissue Differentiation
By: Sridianti On March 24, 2014 0 Comment
In multicellular organisms, cell networks with community work together to carry out particular functions are organized. The exact role of the network in an organism depends on what type of cells it contains. For example, endothelial tissue lining the human gastrointestinal tract is composed of several types of cells. Some cells absorb nutrients from the digestive contents, while others (called goblet cells) secrete lubricating mucus that helps the content to run smoothly.
However, some types of cells in the tissue that not only have different functions. They also have a distinct transcription program and may divide at different rates. Appropriate regulation of this figure is very important for the maintenance and repair of tissues. Spatial organization of the cells that make up the network are also central network function and survival. Organization is largely dependent on the polarity, or the orientation of certain cells in their place. Of course, external signals from neighboring cells or from the extracellular matrix is also an important influence on the composition of cells in the tissue.
Is New Source of Cells for Network?
Without cell division, a network of long-term survival is not possible. Within each tissue, the cells continued to fill itself through the division process, although the turnover rate can vary between different cell types within the same network. For example, in the adult mammalian brain, neurons rarely divide. However, glial cells in the brain continue to divide throughout the life of adult mammals. Mammalian epithelial cells also do perhantian regular basis, usually every few days.
Neurons not only the cells lose their ability to divide when they are adults. In fact, many of the differentiated cells lose this ability. To help cope with this loss, the network maintains stem cells serve as a reservoir for undifferentiated cells. Stem cells usually have the capacity to grow into many different cell types. Transcription factor - a protein that regulates genes that are transcribed in the cell - it seems important to determine the specific stem cells take the lane when they differentiate. For example, both the intestinal absorptive cells and goblet cells arise from the same stem cell population, but the transcriptional programs that cause them to mature into different cells differ dramatically (Figure 1).
transcriptional regulators may act at different stages and in different combinations, by way of cell development and differentiation.
Transcription factors can be activated at different times during cell differentiation. When the mature cells and through different stages (arrows), transcription factors (colored balls) can act on gene expression and cell change in different ways. These changes affect the next generation of cells derived from the cell. In the next generation, it is a combination of transcription factors that is different that could ultimately determine the type of cell.
How Networks Non-grown Keeping Themselves?
Although most tissues in adult organisms maintain a constant size, the cells that make up these networks continues to turn. Therefore, in order for a particular network to remain the same size, the speed of cell death and cell division it must be kept in balance.
Every time stem cells are encouraged to produce certain types of cells, they undergo asymmetric cell division. With asymmetric division, each of the two daughter cells produced has a unique life journey. In this case, one of the daughter cells have a limited capacity for cell division and begin to differentiate, whereas the other daughter cell remains a stem cell with unlimited proliferative ability.
A variety of factors can trigger cell death in the tissues. For example, the process of apoptosis, or programmed cell death, selectively eliminating damaged cells - including those with mitochondrial DNA damage or damaged. During apoptosis, cellular protease and nuclease is activated, and the cell self-destruct. Also monitor cell survival factor and negative signals that they receive from other cells before initiating programmed cell death. Once apoptosis starts, fast results, leaving a small fragment with recognizable pieces of the core material. Specialized cells then rapidly digest and degrade these fragments, making it difficult to detect evidence of apoptosis.
What Component Support Structures Mobile Network?
Network function depends on more than the type of cell and the appropriate level of death and division: This is also a function of cellular regulation. Both cell junctions and the cytoskeletal network helps stabilize the network architecture. For example, the cells that make up the human epithelial tissue attached to each other through some type of adhesive connections. Transmembrane protein characteristics provide the basis for each type of connection. In this connection, a transmembrane protein on the cell interacts with the transmembrane protein similar to the adjacent cells. Specific adapter proteins then connecting the resulting assembly into the cytoskeleton of each cell. It's a lot of connections formed between the junction and cytoskeletal proteins effectively generating network stretching over many cells, providing mechanical strength to the epithelium.
Intestinal endothelium - is actually a surface epithelium lining the digestive tract - is an excellent example of this structure works. Here, the tight junctions between the cells form a seal that prevents even small molecules and ions move across the endothelium. As a result, the endothelial cells themselves are responsible for determining the molecule passes from the intestinal lumen into the surrounding tissue. Meanwhile, based adherens junction protein cadherin transmembrane provide mechanical support to the endothelium. This junction is reinforced by the attachment of a wide array of actin filaments underlying apical - or lumen-facing membrane.
This is an organized collection of actin filaments also extends into the microvilli, which is a small finger-like projections that protrude from the apical membrane into the lumen of the intestine and increase the surface area available for absorption of nutrients. Additional mechanical support comes from desmosomes, which appears as a plaque-like structures beneath the cell membrane, attached to intermediate filaments. In fact, desmosomes-intermediate filament network extending in some cells, such as endothelium-giving properties sheet. In addition, the intestine contained stem cells that guarantee the supply of new cells that contribute to multiple cell types needed for this complex structure works fine.
How Extracellular Matrix Supports Network Structure?
This extracellular matrix (ECM) is also important for the structure of the network, because it gives attachment to the cell site and send information about the spatial position of the cell. ECM consists of a mixture of proteins and polysaccharides produced by the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticula of nearby cells. Once synthesized, these molecules move into the right side of the cell - such as basal or apical face - in which they are incurred. Final organization ECM then occur outside the cell.
To understand how the ECM works, consider two very different sides of the gut endothelium. The network side is facing the lumen, where it comes in contact with the digested food. The other side attaches to specific ECM support structure called the basal lamina. Consists of a basal lamina proteins collagen and laminin, as well as a variety of other macromolecules. On the side of the endothelium, the cells attach adhesive connection to the ECM. transmembrane protein integrin binding ECM components in the intersection and recruit signaling proteins to their cytoplasmic side. From there, the signal goes to the core of each cell.
Conclusion
Network is a community of cells that have a function beyond what a single cell type can be achieved. Healthy tissue requires the right mix of cells, and the cells in it must be oriented correctly and dividing at the right level. In order to coordinate their function, organization, and the rate of death and division, the cells in the tissues continue to process and respond to signals from one another and from the ECM surrounding them.
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